Wild+West+RAFT

 **Websites - Ceremonies** http://plainshumanities.unl.edu ||
 * Ghost Dance ||  ||
 * The first Ghost Dance prophet was Tavibo. He taught a ceremonial dance while prophesying that white people would disappear and Native Americans would prosper. Possibly his son, Wovoka taught many of the same things but also preached peaceful coexistence. His teachings spread far across the West and Great Plains. The Lakota came to Wovoka to learn about this new religion. They believed that the Ghost Dance would bring back the buffalo, induce a natural disaster among the whites, and that ceremonial shirts would protect them from bullets. White settlers and reservation officers thought the Ghost Dance was preparation for war.

http://digital.library.okstate.edu ||
 * Ghost Dance ||  ||
 * The ghost dance is both an expression of Native American artistic culture and a religious movement. This illustrated article from the Oklahoma Historical Society’s “Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture” explains the historic significance of this four-day religious celebration observed by tribal groups in the Oklahoma Territory and other states in the West. The importance of ghost dance preparations and how traditions have changed over the years is also discussed in this article by Gloria A. Young.

 **Websites - Bison** http://americanhistory.si.edu ||  1409679960
 * Tracking the Buffalo -- Stories from a Buffalo Hide Painting ||  ||
 * From the Smithsonian National Museum of American History, this activity looks at the role of the buffalo in the lives of American Indians. You are invited to become a historian and to discover what stories are told by the pictures painted on buffalo hides. You can use a key to help you. Find out how to make your own painted buffalo hide. Play a matching game to learn what can be made from a buffalo. The background information tells origin stories about the Plains Indians.

http://www.texasbeyondhistory.net ||  1409679960 http://www.sheppardsoftware.com || 1409679960 http://www.tpt.org || 1409679960 http://www.pbs.org ||
 * How Many Ways Can You Use a Buffalo? ||  ||
 * What is the largest land animal in North America? If you answered Buffalo then you are correct. Did you know a buffalo can weigh more than 2,000 pounds? So, how did Native Americans hunt and kill such large animals? Visit this web site and uncover their powerful strategy. How many different ways did the Native Americans use the buffalo? Did you know they used everything from the brains of the buffalo to its beard? Learn more by visiting this interactive web site.
 * Bison ||  ||
 * At one time millions of bison roamed the land of North America and were the largest community of wild animals in the world. You can learn all about the bison and what happened to its enormous population. You will learn about its range and habitat, its alternate names, and its physical appearance. Information on its head, fur, and colors can be found along with discussions on the bison's predators, its origins, and related controversies involving the bison. A great deal of history is included in the profile as well.
 * Bison Roundup ||  ||
 * Millions of bison wandered the prairies of North America for thousands of years. Native Americans shaped their lifestyle around following the herds. They used these 2,000-pound animals for food, shelter, clothing, and fuel. Cattlemen wanted to eliminate the buffalo to have more grazing land for their cattle. Buffalo meat became an easy food to feed lots of railroad workers, soldiers, and settlers. Other people made a profit by selling the hides of these animals. Few buffalo or bison survived. Native Americans had to rely on the government for enough food to survive.
 * American Buffalo: Spirit of a Nation ||  ||
 * Nature: American Buffalo is sponsored by PBS. Here you will read, The NATURE program AMERICAN BUFFALO: SPIRIT OF A NATION tells the sad story of how the buffalo nation was destroyed nearly a century ago by greed and uncontrolled hunting. Long ago the Bison came to America by crossing land bridges. They once roamed all over the United States in large herds. You will read about today's free-roaming buffalo herds that number over 200,000. What role do the buffalo play in Native Americans past and present? Learn more about the buffalo here.

 **Websites - Pioneers** **Cowboys:** Cowboy Clothing The hat is probably the most recognizable part of a cowboy's clothing. Clothing evolves from necessity but also offers elements of fashion and style. A cowboyâs uniform evolved from the work shoes, suit coats, and small felt hats of the 19th century buckaroos. Wooly chaps evolved into batwings. Jeans became a standard feature along with neckerchiefs and boots with heels. Variations reveal a cowboyâs origins, training, and newness to the profession. Hats also reveal fashion and are worn constantly.  1409679960 **Pioneers:** Introduction to Pioneer Farming - Pioneer Farmers In the 1830s, pioneer farmers moved west of the Mississippi to farm the rich prairie soil, where Native Americans had once hunted buffalo. At first, such farming was done by hand. The development of the steel plow by John Deere allowed farmers to be more successful farming the thick prairie sod. Farm machinery developed as technology grew, and tasks previously done by hand were made easier with working horses and oxen. The 1800s was a time of rapid technological changes on the frontier, transforming it into a key agricultural area. http://www.campsilos.org 1409679960 <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">Frontier Life: Introduction <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Cowboys, Indians, and wild-eyed prospectors compose the stereotypical idea of the American West. What was life on the American frontier like for everyday people? From the late 1700s to the early 1800s, the American frontier moved from Kentucky to Chicago. The Homestead Act changed all that. Uncle Sam was giving away free land to Americans. Discover the diversity of the people who went West, learn about Montana homesteads and the trip there by train or wagon. Read about packing for the trip, the hardships of life on the trail, and creating a home on the frontier. <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">[] <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409679960 <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">Heritage Gateway <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">The Heritage Gateways web site features historical diaries, notations from historical books, news articles, maps, and video all reflecting the hardships and accomplishments of everyday living of the early pioneers. The site is a wonderful source for research reports. There are additional links to other related topics and resources. A bibliography of related writings, maps and organizations is also offered. <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">http://heritage.uen.org <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409679960 <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">African American Pioneers <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">This essay provides many examples of African American pioneers engaged in a wide variety of pioneering activities after the Civil War: railroad workers, cowhands, farmers, soldiers, miners, ranchers, small business owners – African Americans were involved in practically every occupation that existed in the new western territories as large numbers of pioneers emigrated there. The article emphasizes that the opportunities and hardships of pioneer life were available, regardless of color, for anyone willing to take risks and work hard. <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">http://plainshumanities.unl.edu <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 1409679960 <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">The Other Pioneers: African-Americans on the Frontier <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">This web site provides many interesting facts about African-American pioneers in general, and it also includes delightful focus stories about noted individual African-Americans who went to the frontier: Nat Love - a former slave who was a talented cowboy admired for his roping and shooting skills; Mary Fields (Stagecoach Mary) who did a wide variety of difficult frontier jobs including driving a stagecoach; and Bass Reeves, a deputy U.S. Marshall known for his detective work and skill in a gunfight. <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">http://www.scholastic.com <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409679960 <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">The Northern Great Plains: Sod Homes <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Did you know that the early pioneers of the Great Plains built their homes out of sod? There was very little lumber in the area and it was quite expensive. So the pioneers built their homes from the sod which was readily available. These sod houses were cool in the summer and warm in the winter although heavy rains could cause the sod roofs to leak. The only lumber needed was for the window and the door. At this web site you will find many images of sod buildings, including sod houses and barns, as well as sod schools, sod churches, and even a sod post office and a sod hotel! Enjoy <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">http://memory.loc.gov <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409679960 <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">Stuhr Museum of the Prairie Pioneer <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Welcome to Stuhr Museum of the Prairie Pioneer: A Living History Experience is a museum about pioneer life that is located in Grand Island, Nebraska. The mission of the museum is to preserve and portray the inspiring era of the pioneer town builders who created the first communities in Nebraska. Here you will find many exhibitions online. There is an image gallery of historical photographs and reenactments by the museum. If you are interested in Nebraska history, there are many links for further research here. <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">http://www.stuhrmuseum.org <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> 1409679960 <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">Pioneer Farming - Life in a Log Home <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">What was it like to live in a log cabin? How many children did the typical pioneer family have? What was a regular day like in the lives of the pioneers? How did they build the log cabins? Why were the cabins often crowded? What foods did they eat? Why was it so difficult to keep the cabins clean? How were dishes washed? Come to Pioneer Farming - Life in a Log Home to find the answers to these questions. <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">http://www.campsilos.org <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409679960 <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">Life of the Pioneers: Shelter <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">This web site offers a good overview of pioneer life for young researchers. The first page describes the different types of cabins and fences that the early settlers made, and it provides information on the construction tools they used. The subsequent articles (which can be reached easily with a click at the bottom of page 1) provide interesting information on pioneer food (what vegetables they grew, the meat they ate, the beverages they drank, and how they preserved and stored food) and clothing (with a discussion of the many steps needed to make an article of clothing). <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">http://www.museumsofwv.org <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409679960 <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">Gender, Race, and Ethnicity in the West (1860-1898) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Chinese immigration had been encouraged in the mid-19th century, but anti-Chinese policies developed due to prejudice. Learn about the Chinese Exclusion Act. Chinese immigrants were willing to work for lower wages under dismal working conditions. Other workers resented the hiring of Chinese workers. One Chinese merchant respectfully appealed to Congress for help. Investigate Native American treaties and government policies. The goal of the government with Native Americans was assimilation. African Americans were among those who joined the migration west. Known as the Exodusters, they formed their own utopian communities. <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">http://www.theomahaproject.org <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">**Women on the Frontier:** <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">The Foremothers Tell of Olden Times <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco has created a great site describing the life led by many pioneer women. Here you will learn about the many responsibilities and hardships which these women endured with little complaint. Begin to understand their importance during the huge Gold Rush, in which the California population exploded! Read first hand accounts from Mrs. F.A. Van Winkle of Colusa about her pioneer experiences and meeting the surviving party of the well-known and disastrous Donner party. <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">http://www.sfmuseum.org <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409679960 <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">Sun River Homestead <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Three sisters headed west in the early 1900's to claim land. Lured by advertisements of free land and endless opportunities, Ester Strasburger traveled 1600 miles alone at the age of nineteen to take a teaching job, and her sisters shortly followed. You can read these articles yourself and see why people were convinced to move. Find out why the Homestead Act increased the need for teachers in the West, and learn how teachers lived then. See photos of Ester and the Strasburger family. A collection of over 100 postcards sent between the sisters shares the life of a homesteader <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">[] <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409679960 <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">Adeline Hornbek and the Homestead Act: A Colorado Success Story <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Meet Adeline Hornbek, a successful homesteader, who defied traditional female roles to become the owner of a prosperous ranch in Colorado in the 1870s. The National Park Service presents much background information about the Homestead Act on this web site. You will also be able to find photographs as well as maps of the area and of the Hornbek homestead and other homestead plots. The site also includes readings about this strong and determined woman that will help you understand the challenges of being a homesteader. <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">http://www.nps.gov <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409679960 <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">Pioneer Quilt Patterns and the Story Behind Their Names <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Many quilt patterns are named after the experiences of early pioneers in America. Rocky Road to Kansas, Road to California, Log Cabin, Bear's Paw, Pine Tree, Wandering Foot, Prairie Queen, and Oregon Trail are just a few. Women also gave their quilts names with religious themes. A quilt made with blocks named from the Bible would be a source of comfort. Many diary and journal entries contain stories by the early pioneer women. Pioneer quilts also told their stories. You can read about the history of pioneer quilts in this article. <span style="color: #2954d1; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;">http://www.patternsfromhistory.com

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: center;"> **Websites - Native Americans of the Plains**

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">**Native Americans:**

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> **Plains Native Americans**

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">This site is a one stop shop for information on Native American tribes of the Plains. Several of the links below refer to this site as well.

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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> Native Americans

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">The Native American and the Great plains have a deep connection that is examined in this encyclopedia article. You will find detailed discussions on the longevity of the Plains Indians, the necessary environmental adaptations, the role of migration, and the introduction and impact of horses, guns, and disease. Information on the Plains Indians and Europeans is included as well as the affect of American expansion. Related treaties, resistance, and wars are all discussed as well as reservations, assimilation, and political adaptations.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> http://plainshumanities.unl.edu

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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> Legends of Our Times: Native Ranching and Rodeo Life on the Plains

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Smithsonian's National Museum of the American Indian lets you trace the history of Native American ranchers and cowboys. See how the Native people of North America were able to adapt to ranching and rodeo life. You will find stories about the perseverance of these people as they dealt with hardships and relocations. Stroll through the photo gallery to see over 700 objects in the exhibit. For each object, you will see an image and find a description.

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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> Northern Great Plains, 1880-1920: Native Americans

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Learn about the seven different tribes that used to live in the area that is now North Dakota. You will discover the many similarities between these tribes, how they lived off the land, and how they were affected by European settlement. You will learn about specific disputes that took place between the tribes and with the settlers. You will also find out where these tribes were relocated after signing a treaty with the United States and where they are located today.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> http://memory.loc.gov

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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> The Lakota of the Plains

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Just when you think you have learned all there is to learn at this web site about the Lakota Sioux, there is another underlined link or a hyperlinked picture with even more information! Begin your study with the Great Plains area where the Lakota live and find out how they made decisions by watching the stars. You will learn about the importance of the buffalo and the role of Lakota women. The significant events in Lakota history are described.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;"> http://www.carnegiemnh.org

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http://www.historynet.com ||
 * Wounded Knee Massacre: United States versus the Plains Indians ||  ||
 * Although it is sometimes called the Battle at Wounded Knee, history shows that the true name is the Massacre at Wounded Knee. This article explains the events that began in South Dakota ten years before the actual massacre in 1890. Learn about the relationship between the United States and the Plains Indians and why the ghost dancers were considered a threat. Find out how Sitting Bull was killed. The article describes the events of December 28, 1890 and explains that this massacre was the last major engagement of the Indian Wars.

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http://www.texasbeyondhistory.net ||
 * Talking Hands -- Unlock the Secret of Indian Languages ||  ||
 * The hand on the opening page of this web site will direct you to information and activities that will teach you about the sign language of the Plains Indians. Find out when Plains Indians began using sign language to communicate and learn when and why they lost their sign language and spoken language as well. Find out how to say the same word in 7 different languages and play the talking hands game. There are instructions for creating your own sign language.

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http://plainshumanities.unl.edu ||
 * Plains Crees ||  ||
 * Traditionally the Plains Cree Indians inhabit much of the Canadian Plains and they speak Algonquian. You can learn about the origins and the history of the Plains Cree in this encyclopedia article that explains what archaeological remains suggest and what records tell us. Information on the Plains Cree Indians' role in the fur trade is provided along with changes that were brought about by the introduction of European settlers. The eventual division of the Plains Cree Indians is discussed along with the modern and present day Plains Cree Indians.

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http://www.visitmt.com ||
 * Indian Nations: Sacred Lands from Peaks to Plains ||  ||
 * Learn about each one of the tribes that live on the seven different reservations in Montana. The official travel site provides you with a list of pictures related to the reservations and some facts related to the tribes. This list allows you to learn more about each reservation and the tribes. There is also an interactive map that lets you click on the names of the reservations to find the same information. An interactive list takes you to an audio pronunciation guide, pdf files on the history of the tribes and pow wows and the official Montana Tribes web site.

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http://history.howstuffworks.com ||
 * Pawnee Indians ||  ||
 * Once a large and powerful tribe, the Pawnee were divided into the Chaui, Kitehahki, Pitahauerat, and Skidi. The Skidi practiced human sacrifice, an unusual ritual among the Plains Indians. They came to the Plains from the Southeast before Europeans arrived in the Americas. As farmers and hunters, they lived in villages in Nebraska and Kansas. Although they warred with other tribes, they often served as army scouts and were friendly to settlers. In the 1700s, there were 10,000 Pawnee. Diseases like smallpox and cholera killed thousands. The remaining Pawnee were forced onto a reservation in Oklahoma.

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http://www.nmnh.si.edu ||
 * Squint Eyes: Artist and Indian Scout ||  ||
 * The National Museum of American History presents from the Anthropological Archives this display of the Squint Eyes' drawings. These artworks were produced between 1886 and 1887 at Fort Supply, Oklahoma. They are an important chapter in the story of the Plains Indian pictorial art. The best-known groups of Plains artists were the men held prisoner at Fort Marion in Saint Augustine, Florida. They developed a distinctive style that was quite different than the artists who remained in their home communities.

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http://plainshumanities.unl.edu ||
 * Hunting ||  ||
 * Horses were only a very small part of the history of Plains Indians hunting and this encyclopedia article examines this history. You will learn about the way the Plains Indians hunted prior to the introduction of the horse including the types of animals that were hunted, the effect of the change in climate, and changes in trends. Information on hunting after the introduction of the horse includes the emphasis on bison hunting and the abandonment of hunting by the Plains Indians.

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http://www.virtualsk.com ||
 * Virtual Saskatchewan - Cree Chief Poundmaker ||  ||
 * In Plains Indian traditions it was not uncommon for a young person to be adopted by a chief of another tribe. The Cree and Blackfoot Nations were traditional enemies. This story tells of the unusual occurrence when the Blackfoot Chief Crowfoot adopted a Cree young man known as Poundmaker. Poundmaker played a lead role in historic negotiations of Treaty 6 giving the Indians land in return for peaceful co-existence. The author tells of Poundmaker's role in political dealing with the Canadian government for the survival of the Plains Indians.

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http://www.comancheindian.com ||
 * Comanche Indian ||  ||
 * The Comanche Indians lived on the North American Southern Plains during much of the 1800 - 1900's. Prior to their acquiring the horse and gradually migrating to the Southern Great Plains around the 1700s, The Comanche had primarily been a hunter-gatherer people. Upon acquiring horses, they moved, attacking and taking over territory occupied by other tribes the area they controlled became known as Comancheria. It is believed that the Comanche were the first people of the Plains to use horses in their travels and conquests.

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http://www.historynet.com ||
 * Lakotas: Feared Fighters of the Plains ||  ||
 * This article from a series of articles about American Indian wars describes the Teton Sioux and an attempt to take on the United States Army during a battle. Read about a surprise attack by the American soldiers and find out the response of the Native Americans. The article goes on to discuss the history of the Teton people, the lands they occupied and their relationships with other tribes. The Treaty of Fort Laramie is described.

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http://www.texasindians.com ||
 * Horses and the Plains Indians ||  ||
 * When we think of Native Americans, we often think of them riding horses. However, Native Americans have not always had horses. In fact, it was Coronado and DeSotto, the Spanish Explorers, that brought horses to America. Log onto this web site and learn more about the history of horses and the Plains Indians. You can also see some fascinating pictures. Do you know why the Indians called the horses sacred dogs? Visit this web site for the answer.

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http://plainshumanities.unl.edu ||
 * Treaties ||  ||
 * The key to obtaining Native Americans' land was the treaty. You will learn how both the United States and Canada used the treaty to not only take away the land of the Plains Indians, but also to gain control over them. You will find information that explains how and why the first treaties were developed, how they were used to manipulate the Plains Indians, and what the Plains Indians and the governments typically gained from treaty agreements.

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http://plainshumanities.unl.edu ||
 * Reservations ||  ||
 * Reservations are either ancestral areas of land or designated areas of land retained by Native Americans. The reservations of the Great Plains Indians are the focus of this encyclopedia article. You will find a discussion on the first reservations set aside after relocation and you will learn about assimilation and the loss of identity. The reservations that were retained by Native Americans are also discussed and you will find information on the great losses that the Native American population experienced.

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http://plainshumanities.unl.edu ||
 * Pawnees ||  ||
 * The Pawnee's roots in the Great Plains are deeper than most Plains Indians as you will discover in this encyclopedia article. You will learn about the traditions of the Pawnee, the populations of Pawnee during the Lewis and Clark expedition, and the differences in the four main bands of Pawnee. Information on the changes in the Pawnee lifestyle that took place following wars and diseases is provided along with the migrations that took the Pawnee south.

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http://plainshumanities.unl.edu ||
 * Native American Traditional Art ||  ||
 * Plains Indians used a variety of natural materials to decorate themselves and their belongings and they carved boulders and rock walls. This encyclopedia article explains how the diversity in rock art is signifies the many different Indian groups inhabiting the Great Plains. It describes the different types of symbolism found in traditional Native American art in this region and how the art work evolved over time. The differences between Native American art and European art are also discussed and you will learn about the influences the Europeans had on Native American art.

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http://www.factmonster.com ||
 * Crow ||  ||
 * The Fact Monster web site is a good resource on The Crow Indian tribe. You can read about their language and the other groups of Indians they lived with in the past. There is also information about how many Crow Indians make their living now. The majority of the Crow Indians live in Montana. This web site is handy because there are vocabulary words with hot linked definitions.

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http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca ||
 * Explore the Communities: Plains Cree ||  ||
 * The Plains Cree are part of the largest group of Aboriginal people in Canada. Once, they lived on the prairies, hunted buffalo, and traded with other Aboriginal people and Europeans. Today, they live in towns and cities and on reserves. Explore the rich history of the Plains Cree on this web site. Click on the different sections to learn about their history, their food, their religion, and their language. This site includes photographs as well as book suggestions to learn more about the Cree.

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http://plainshumanities.unl.edu ||
 * Shoshones ||  ||
 * The meaning and origin of the name Shoshone is explained in the introduction to this encyclopedia article that also tells you about the population and location of these Plains Indians. You will find information on the different groups of Shoshone that are described according to location, the divisions of the groups, and their ways of life. You will learn about hunting, arts, gender roles, the social structure, and religion. Statistics related to the modern Shoshone are presented as well.

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http://plainshumanities.unl.edu ||
 * Apaches ||  ||
 * Discover what is known about the origins of the Apache in the Great Plains as you examine this encyclopedia article on the history of the Apache. You will find evidence that suggests certain theories and disclaims others, information on waves of Apache migration, and the changes that were due to Spanish colonization. Information on the role of the horse, Apache Indians in Texas, and negotiated treaties with the Apache is included along with information on the Apache living in the United States today.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: center;"> **Websites - Native American Chiefs**

http://www.statemuseum.arizona.edu ||
 * Geronimo ||  ||
 * An Apache from the Southern Four Corners region, Geronimo was originally known as Goyakla. In Mexico, when Geronimo went to town to trade, soldiers massacred his family. He vowed vengeance and became a war chief. Eventually he surrendered but later repeatedly escaped. More than five thousand soldiers joined in the hunt as Geronimo's band evaded capture for five months. After incarceration in Florida, they were moved to Alabama and Oklahoma as prisoners of war in spite of promises that they would return to Arizona. Investigate Geronimo's celebrity status as he appeared at expositions and rode in an inaugural parade.

http://www.geronimotrail.com ||
 * Geronimo: A Brief History ||  ||
 * Goyathlay terrified Mexican troops as he paid back retribution for the murder of his family. As they cried out to St. Jerome during his attacks, he earned the name Geronimo. As the United States tried to move Geronimo's people from their mountain home to the Arizona desert, he resisted and repeatedly escaped. Read about the enormous search party that went after them. Learn about the lies and promises that they would be allowed to return to a reservation in their homeland. Even when he died, Geronimo was denied the right of being buried with his ancestors.

http://digital.library.okstate.edu ||
 * Geronimo (ca. 1829-1909) ||  ||
 * A tenacious fighter and spiritual leader of the Apache people, Geronimo fought against those who threatened the Apache way of life. Discover his Apache name and why Mexico soldiers called him Geronimo. At first, he fought the Mexican troops who killed his family but later he fought to escape reservation life and negotiate better treaties. You can learn about Geronimo's surrender after decades of conducting raids. Read about the public appearances he made late in his life even as he continued to try to get the government to allow his people to return to Arizona.

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http://plainshumanities.unl.edu ||
 * Sitting Bull ||  ||
 * Sitting Bull is one of most recognizable Native American names due to the legend of the Lakota leader. This encyclopedia article explains how Sitting Bull became such an influential and well respected figure by his people. You will learn the details of the historic events that included conflict and negotiations involving Sitting Bull and the government. You will also discover how Sitting Bull represented his people and stood up for his beliefs right up until the very end of his life.

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http://www.pbs.org ||
 * Sitting Bull: Tatanka-Iyotanka (1831-1890) ||  ||
 * PBS produced the eight-part documentary The West, and this article is a written connection to portions of the documentary. Sitting Bull's tenacious leadership, his aversion to White society, his dedication to his people, his refusal to accept the reservation, and his prohetic death are revealed in this article. Many links are provided in the text to people, places, and events in Sitting Bull's life. Reading this account arouses interest and inspires the reader to continue reading in this ambitious PBS site. The desire to view The West is also fostered by an examination of this site and its home site.

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http://www.onbeing.org ||
 * Tatanka Iyotake: Reimagining Sitting Bull ||  ||
 * Lakota leader and medicine man Sitting Bull became public enemy number one as he fought to protect the land. Known among his people as Tatanka Iyotake, Sitting Bull fought the change of lifestyle. He refused to sign treaties because the U.S. would not keep them. To the American government, sacred rituals were seen as barbarous. Was Sitting Bull a fighter or a spiritual man? Discover how Sitting Bull's story is different coming from a Lakota perspective.

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http://www.siouxme.com ||
 * Crazy Horse/Tashunkewitko, Oglala ||  ||
 * Crazy Horses' life is described in detail at this story like web site. You will read about Sioux traditions and public services he was taught along with many boyhood stories. The text also includes how he lost his brother and his encounters with the white man. There is a large focus on his dealings with General Custer for which he is famous. There are links to other American Indian leaders, biographies, stories, recipes, and history.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: center;"> **Websites - Massacres** http://www.americaslibrary.gov || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409680406 http://plainshumanities.unl.edu || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409680406 http://www.findingdulcinea.com || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409680406 http://www.custerslaststand.org || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409680406 http://www.pbs.org || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409680406 http://plainshumanities.unl.edu || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409680406 http://montanakids.com || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409680406 http://www.usnews.com || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409680406 http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409680406 http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409680406 http://www.historynet.com || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409680406 http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409680406 http://www.savagesandscoundrels.org || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409680406 http://www.nps.gov || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409680406 http://www.findingdulcinea.com || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409680406 http://www.ushistory.org || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409680406 http://www.historynet.com || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409680406 http://www.archives.gov || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409680406 http://www.pbs.org || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">1409680406 http://www.santafetrailscenicandhistoricbyway.org ||
 * Custer's Last Stand ||  ||
 * Lieutenant Colonel George Custer and the cavalry under his command attacked the Sioux and Cheyenne Indians in 1876. Refusing to wait for reinforcements after spotting Chief Sitting Bull, he attacked in a battle known as Custer's Last Stand or the Battle of Little Big Horn. Find out why the United States government refused to honor their treaty with the Sioux, why the Indians refused to leave their land, and how quickly Custer's troops were defeated.
 * Custer, George Armstrong (1839-1876) ||  ||
 * George Armstrong Custer is often associated with the event often referred to as Custer's Last Stand. This encyclopedia tells you more about the famous Civil War general that may not be commonly known. You will learn about the young soldier who made up for his poor grades with his ability as a fearless fighter. Details of his appearance are provided and include some that are legendary. His rise through the ranks is described and so are the details of a controversial victory that resulted in a great deal of destruction. A description of Custer's Last Stand is provided as well.
 * On This Day: Custer Killed in Battle of Little Bighorn ||  ||
 * The day in 1876 when Native American warriors led by Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull defeated Colonel George Custer and his forces near Little Bighorn River is known as Custer's Last Stand or the Battle of Little Bighorn. This article explains the events of this day and tells you about the key figures involved. You will discover the events that led to the battle and learn about the battle between the Native Americans and Custer's forces. Biographies on Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, and Custer can be found along with information on the related mysteries surrounding the battle and later developments.
 * Tales from the Old West ||  ||
 * Reflect on tales from the Old West and the Battle of the Little Bighorn. Learn about the life and Last Stand of General George Armstrong Custer through the eyes of a man who plays the part in a re-enactment of the historical events, including Custer's horsemanship and interest in rattlesnakes. Learn about a horse that survived the battle, the role of Marcus Reno, what made McClellan's saddle unique, and a new definition of painted ponies. Take a look at an account of the battle from a Crow scout and a black man who served as an interpreter.
 * George Armstrong Custer 1839-1876 ||  ||
 * The New Perspective of the West presented by PBS includes this article about George Armstrong Custer. He fought in the First Battle of Bull Run, and has remained one of the best-known figures in American history after his death at the hands of Lakota and Cheyenne warriors at the Battle of the Little Bighorn. A section about the countless paintings of Custer's Last Stand comments that Custer is depicted as a gallant victim. Forgotten were the facts that Custer started the battle by attacking the Indian village.
 * Little Bighorn, Battle of the ||  ||
 * The United States army's worst defeat of the Plains Indian Wars took place on June 25, 1876. This encyclopedia article tells you about the Battle of Bighorn that involved the deaths of 210 of Custer's men. The article explains the prelude to what is now known as Custer's Last Stand, the government's objective, and the three pronged campaign against the Lakotas and the Cheyennes. Details of the battle are also included in the article along with the public's reaction to the defeat.
 * Joseph Medicine Crow ||  ||
 * Born on a Crow reservation in Montana in 1913, Dr. Joseph Medicine Crow became a tribal historian and anthropologist. He wrote a lot about the Battle of Little Big Horn as well as reservation culture. His step-grandfather had been a scout for Custer. He earned the war deeds to become a chief during World War II, and earned the first Master's degree among the Crow. When asked to help write a film about Custer's Last Stand, the director didn't like what he said and fired him. He wrote his own script and even addressed the United Nations.
 * Custer's Blunder ||  ||
 * On a blistering hot afternoon over a century ago, a Civil War hero turned Indian fighter made a fatal blunder. The battle is somewhat of a mystery to historians, as there were no survivors among Custer's men, and Native American accounts of the battle were conflicting. The iconic image of Custer going down with guns blazing may simply be a myth. A battlefield archeological survey revealed chaos and panic, and the early Indian accounts of bravery on the battlefield may have been fabricated for treaty negotiations.
 * Custer and the Battle of the Little Bighorn ||  ||
 * Gold was found in the Black Hills in 1874. The United States government attempted to buy the territory, which was considered sacred by the Native people. The Sioux united in numbers never before seen to counter the attack on their sacred land, while the United States government was determined to force them into submission. Custer decided not to wait for reinforcements, but attacked a large village, unaware of their strength or numbers. Discover the fatal mistakes made by Custer. Investigate numerous accounts of sole survivors, conflicting accounts of the battle, and the army response to the defeat at Little Bighorn.
 * The Battle of Little Big Horn, 1876 ||  ||
 * Angry at the continued desecration of sacred Indian lands in the Black Hills, the Sioux and Cheyenne Indian tribes left their reservation lands in the summer of 1876 to fight against the United States Calvary that was trying to force the Indians back onto the reservations. Three army columns, one led by Lt. Colonel George Custer, met up with the Indian army in the Little Bighorn Valley. Learn how the Indian army got the best of the Calvary units and ended up killing just about everyone in Custer's Calvary unit. You will also find out about some of the myths surrounding the battle.
 * Wounded Knee Massacre: United States versus the Plains Indians ||  ||
 * Although it is sometimes called the Battle at Wounded Knee, history shows that the true name is the Massacre at Wounded Knee. This article explains the events that began in South Dakota ten years before the actual massacre in 1890. Learn about the relationship between the United States and the Plains Indians and why the ghost dancers were considered a threat. Find out how Sitting Bull was killed. The article describes the events of December 28, 1890 and explains that this massacre was the last major engagement of the Indian Wars.
 * Wounded Knee ||   ||
 * Because the Native Americans of the Plains hoped for their lives to return to the way it was before settlers moved to their lands, they began to practice the Ghost Dance. Learn how this Native American religious movement began the events that led to the massacre at Wounded Knee. Read about the arrest and death of Sitting Bull and how his Sioux followers were moved to Wounded Knee Creek. The battle of 1890 and the deaths of over 200 Native Americans are described.
 * 1890: Wounded Knee ||  ||
 * After hearing the news that Sitting Bull had been killed at Standing Rock, Big Foot decided to move his tribe to a more remote and protected area of Pine Ridge reservation in South Dakota. This article describes the events that took place after Big Foot began to move his tribe. You will learn what happened after Big Foot came upon mounted troops and the results of the last battle of the Indian Wars on the Plains that was eventually called the Battle of Wounded Knee. Photographs taken after the massacre accompany the article.
 * Wounded Knee Battlefield, South Dakota ||  ||
 * The Wounded Knee Battlefield is maintained by the U.S. National Park Service and is a reminder of the last major clash between the American military and Native Americans. You will find out what the battlefield looks like today, but you will also read about the tragic events that took place there on December 29, 1890. The massacre marked the end of four centuries of warfare between westward-moving settlers and Native Americans. You will learn the names of the leaders who were involved on both sides and find out about the death toll. A photograph of the modern battlefield is included.
 * On This Day: Unarmed Sioux Massacred at Wounded Knee ||  ||
 * The last significant battle of the Indian Wars took place on December 29, 1890 when two to three hundred unarmed Sioux Indians were killed by U.S. soldiers at Wounded Knee, South Dakota. Some background information on the relationship between white settlers and Native Americans is provided in the beginning of this article and followed by a discussion that reveals the events that led up to what was to be called the Wounded Knee Massacre. Along with this detailed description of the massacre you will also find a discussion on reactions to the massacre and biographies of the key players.
 * The Wounded Knee Massacre ||  ||
 * The Wounded Knee Massacre was a confrontation between the U.S. Seventh Cavalry and the Lakota Sioux tribe in South Dakota in 1890. Find out about the events leading up to this tragedy by visiting the U.S. History web site. You will find a clear explanation of the Ghost Dance ritual and why white citizens opposed it. A conflict about the Lakota Sioux's participation in the Ghost Dance and several other misunderstandings culminated in the loss of many innocent lives on December 29, 1890. Discover the importance of the Wounded Knee Massacre in American history.
 * Sand Creek Massacre ||  ||
 * Militia soldiers attacked a Cheyenne and Arapaho village after a night of drinking in 1864. Colonel Chivington ordered the massacre of the village, made up mostly of women and children. Peace-seeking Chiefs Black Kettle and White Antelope had signed the treaty, camped near Fort Leon, and flew an American flag over their camp. They weren't the ones attacking white settlers for taking their land, but their people were the ones massacred and mutilated by the soldiers. Read both sides of the story as you investigate attempts at peace negotiations.
 * The Search for the Site of the Sand Creek Massacre ||  ||
 * One hundred Cheyenne and Arapaho lodges were located along the banks of an intermittent stream known as Sand Creek. About five hundred Native Americans lived in the village under the belief that they were at peace with and would be protected by the U.S. government. Seven hundred soldiers arrived with Colonel Chivington in a surprise dawn attack. Women, children, and the elderly were killed and scalped. A heroes' reception for the soldiers turned into a national disgrace when the truth was revealed. A senator who was descended from Sand Creek survivors sponsored a bill to create a national historic site.
 * Who Is the Savage? ||  ||
 * Chosen for his courage and concern for others, Chief Black Kettle proved himself as a warrior but dedicated his life to peace with the white settlers. He served as a father and spiritual leader to his people. Although he agreed to move his people onto the reservation along Sand Creek, they had to go to their old hunting grounds or starve to death. With young men unable to prove themselves through hunting or battle, some robbed stage coaches or ranches. Colonel Chivington hoped to further his political ambitions by massacring the natives. Little children were used as target practice.
 * The Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site: Shifting Sands by Harrison Fletcher ||  ||
 * In 1999, metal detectors found horseshoe nails and bullets. They found butcher knives and skillets. Two hundred miles southeast of Denver, they found an archaeological site. Some believed it was the graveyard where Cheyenne and Arapaho had been slaughtered more than a century earlier in the Sand Creek Massacre. The site of the 1964 massacre has been debated since 1908. Veterans, ranchers, museum curators, and Boy Scouts all had different ideas about where the battle occurred. The colonial responsible for the bloodbath went unpunished. The promised reparations to victims' families were never paid.